[A] The following conclusions are supported by good evidence:
The chronic consumption of alcohol, particularly in amounts exceeding one to two standard drinks per day, is associated with increased risk of numerous cancers including breast, esophageal, oropharyngeal, lung, gastric, laryngeal, hepatocellular, endometrial, pancreatic and colorectal.
[B] The following conclusions are supported by fair evidence:
Moderate alcohol consumption (fewer than three drinks per day) is associated with a decrease in heart disease risk.
Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a decrease in stroke risk.
The regular consumption of alcohol in excess of 30-40 grams/day is associated with increased risk of several chronic diseases including pancreatitis, hypertension, mental illness, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and diseases of the liver.
Heavy drinking, particularly on an irregular basis, is associated with cardiovascular disease events including coronary heart disease, atrial fibrillation, and stroke.
[C] The following conclusions are supported by limited evidence or expert opinion:
Moderate alcohol consumption may confer a protective effect against certain forms of cancer (renal cell, endomeroid epithelial ovarian cancers), reduce cardiovascular disease mortality and may reduce the risk of developing physical disability in older adults.
Evidence from clinical trials identifies that moderate drinking can increase blood pressure in individuals with and without hypertension. Observational data also suggests that although low-moderate alcohol intake is associated with a reduced risk of CVD compared to not drinking or occasional drinking, high alcohol intake in individuals with hypertension is associated with increased mortality.
Individuals with hypertension should be advised to limit alcohol intake and follow Low Risk Drinking Guidelines.
Alcohol consumption is associated with increased risk of accidental injury including motor vehicle accident, falls, workplace injury and drowning.
[D] A conclusion is either not possible or extremely limited because evidence is unavailable and/or of poor quality and/or is contradictory:
Despite the numerous anecdotal cures for hangover there is limited research on any intervention. Of the research that has been conducted, the evidence for decreasing hangover symptoms of the following is poor:
•gamma-linolenic acid (Borago officinalis)
•prickly pear extract (Opuntia ficus-indica)
•caffeine-containing products
•a commercial remedy of dried yeast/B-vitamin
•a traditional ginger-based remedy.
These products cannot be recommended as effective treatments at this time.
Note: See relevant practice questions in this knowledge pathway for references.